Descargar into the dead 2 hackeado
In this equation, k is the order of diffraction, meaning that constructive interference occurs at wavelength λ (first order), λ/2 (second order), λ/3 (third order), and so on. Similar resolutions are obtained with the use of echelle gratings. Practical resolution is in the range 5–20 pm with the highest resolution in the UV range. The use of gratings with a large number of lines per millimeter (up to 4200) and that can work in the second order implies that the practical resolution in monochromators is limited essentially by the band pass and the optical aberrations. When using multichannel detection, this problem is no longer a cause for concern, because in a single shot both the line profile and the adjacent background are measured. The main advantage of the direct peaking mode is the speed of measurement but no information is obtained on line profile. The main advantage of the peak search mode is the knowledge of the shape of the line profile, which can be displayed or printed. The peak intensity is computed with the use of curve fitting.
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The peak search mode uses a scan over the line profile. The former mode is usually for systems making use of grating rotation, whereas the latter is for systems based on slit and detector displacement. Two measurement modes can be used: peak search mode and direct peaking mode. The positioning is controlled directly by a computer with periodic wavelength recalibration. Drastic improvements have been made in the accuracy and speed of positioning for wavelength. An echelle grating monochromator is based on the motion of either of two optical components, grating and prism, or the exit slit and the detector. In the first instance, wavelength selection is obtained by rotating the grating and in the second instance by displacing the exit slit and detector. They make use either of a plane grating (with an Ebert–Fastié or a Czerny–Turner mount) or a concave one (with a Paschen–Runge mount). Monochromators work sequentially, by displacing one of the optical components in the dispersive system. The main advantage of a simultaneous system is the speed of measurement. Consequently, a two-dimensional spectrum is obtained, which is highly suitable for a two-dimensional multichannel detector. With an echelle grating, cross-dispersion based on the use of a prism is designed to avoid order overlaps due to the use of a low ruling density but high orders. With a concave grating, a polychromator is obtained with a linear association of array detectors along the so-called Rowland circle. Alternatively, multichannel detection can be used for polychromators. Background correction can be carried out through a small discrete lateral displacement of the entrance slit. The wavelength selection is in principle difficult to change. A photomultiplier tube is set up behind each exit slit. Conventional polychromators make use of a concave grating, and are generally of the Paschen–Runge type, with the entrance slit and the exit slits located on a so-called Rowland circle. Polychromators allow several wavelengths to be measured simultaneously. Two categories of dispersive systems are used: simultaneous polychromators and sequential monochromators, depending (1) on the type of grating, i.e., plane or concave grating with high line number or plane echelle grating with low groove number, and (2) on the type of detector, either photomultiplier tube or multichannel detector. Dispersive systems with diffraction gratings are used.
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As noted previously, there is a trend to work down to 120 nm for lines such as Cl I 134 nm. In AES, work is performed essentially in the range 165–800 nm, with Al II 167 nm and K I 770 nm being the lowest and highest wavelengths, respectively. Off-peak background measurements are usually carried out with an interpolation of the background values at the analytical line wavelength. This includes the measurement of both the gross line intensity and the background. The task of a dispersive system is to measure the net line intensity of an analytical line. Mermet, in Encyclopedia of Analytical Science (Second Edition), 2005 Dispersive Systems